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"Access to tobacco products by New Zealand youth." Darling, H., Reeder, A. et al. (2005). New Zealand Medical Journal 118(1213 ).
A self-report questionnaire was administered to 3434 secondary school students from 82 schools, randomly selected using multi-stage cluster sampling. One-third of the students who smoked purchased tobacco products from commercial sources in the month before the survey. More than one-third of smokers were less than 18 years but was not a barrier to purchasing cigarettes. During 2002, the tobacco sales to those 14–16 years, alone, was over $18 million, with around $12.5 million of this going to the Government as taxes. Policies that restrict youth access to tobacco products can only be effective if they are rigorously enforced.
"Childhood smoking: the research, clinical and theoretical imperative for nursing action."Jairath, N., Mitchell, K. et al. (2003). International Nursing Review 50(4): 203 - 214. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118868946/abstract
Behaviourally based interventions by nurses for smoking prevention/cessation are effective with children. The approaches include addressing self-efficacy to quit, social support, resisting temptation to smoke and discussing issues related to relapse and relapse prevention. Reinforcement of non-smoking behaviour is essential. Intervention models, incorporated into routine clinical care of individual children or with groups, emphasise the importance of parental involvement, routine screening for tobacco use and the message that smoking and tobacco use is unhealthy.
"Family Influences, Acculturation, and the Prevalence of Tobacco Smoking Among Asian Youth in New Zealand: Findings from a National Survey."Wong, G., Ameratunga, S. N. et al. (2008). Journal of Adolescent Health 43(4): 412-41. http://www.jahonline.org/article/S1054-139X(08)00153-5/abstract
The associations among family factors, acculturation, and the risk of regular smoking among Asian youth were investigated in a nationally representative survey in New Zealand. The strong relationships between protective family factors and lower risks of smoking were not attenuated in the presence of indicators suggestive of acculturation.
"Is exposure to secondhand tobacco smoke in the home related to daily smoking among youth?" Darling, H. and Reeder A. (2003). Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health: 655-56.
In this communication we report the relation between home secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure, from all sources, and the prevalence of youth daily smoking. Using multi-stage cluster sampling, 141 eligible schools from six geographical regions were randomly selected and 82 agreed to participate (response rate 58.2%). School classes were randomly selected producing 3,434 students (mean age 15.0 years), 51.7% male and 15.4% self-identified Māori. Overall, 3.8% reported SHS exposure at home, 17.7% on all 7 days.
"Is there a relation between school smoking policies and youth cigarette smoking knowledge and behaviors?" Darling, H., Reeder, A. et al. (2005). Health Education Research 21(1): 108-115.
The associations between school policies and the prevalence of students' cigarette smoking were obtained from a self-report survey administered to 2658 New Zealand secondary school students and staff from 63 schools selected using a multi-stage sampling procedure. Some policy were not significantly associated with smoking outcomes, health knowledge or health behaviour, and weakly related to a punishment emphasis and students advising others to not smoke. The results suggest that having a school tobacco policy was unrelated to the prevalence of tobacco use among students, tobacco purchasing behaviour and knowledge of the negative health effects of tobacco.
"Do Parents Have Any Influence Over How Young People Appraise Tobacco Images in the Media?"McCool, J., L. D. Cameron, et al. (2010). Journal of Adolescent Health In press.
This study reported the analysis of adolescents (N = 515, ages 11–13) who completed a multimedia, computer-based questionnaire showed that smoking imagery in the media clips and media consumption were patterned on the basis of gender, ethnic group, school economic status, and peer and parent smoking behaviours. Positive appraisals of the smoking images were found to mediate the relationship between weaker parental antismoking expectations and greater smoking intentions. Parents may have significant influence over how adolescents perceive smoking imagery in media by presenting clear and unambiguous expectations about tobacco use at home.
Sherman, S. J., L. Chassin, et al. (2009). "The Intergenerational Transmission of Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward Smoking." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45(2): 313.
This study examined the intergenerational transmission of implicit and explicit attitudes toward smoking, as well as the role of these attitudes in adolescents’ smoking initiation. There was evidence of intergenerational transmission of implicit attitudes. Mothers who had more positive implicit attitudes had children with more positive implicit attitudes. In turn, these positive implicit attitudes of adolescents predicted their smoking initiation 18-months later. Moreover, these effects were obtained above and beyond the effects of explicit attitudes. These findings provide the first evidence that the intergenerational transmission of implicit cognition may play a role in the intergenerational transmission of an addictive behavior.
"Smoke-free schools? Results of a secondary school smoking policies survey 2002." Darling, H. and Reeder A. (2003). New Zealand Medical Journal 116(1180).
Schools selected for participation in the Health Sponsorship Council’s 2002 Youth Lifestyle Study were invited to participate in the School Smoking Policies Survey. Eighty one of 82 schools responded. Sixty four schools provided copies of smoking policies but only 31 schools were totally smoke free. Five schools were both smoke free and fully compliant with existing legislation. Seventy eight schools provided education about smoking and imposed sanctions on students caught smoking. Most respondents considered school staff would support proposed changes to the Smoke-free Environments Act. Most schools are not smoke free, but most staff are likely to support smoke-free status.
"Tobacco education: have New Zealand primary schools done their homework?" Walker, J. and Darling, H. (2007). Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 31(1): 23 - 25. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117969405/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0
The content, delivery and evaluation of tobacco-related (smoke-free) education to pre-teen students are compared with current best practice. A postal survey to staff of 136 New Zealand primary schools showed more than 90% of schools offered some education about the harmful effects of tobacco use but relying mainly on external providers. There was a lack of rigorous programme evaluation, particularly of programmes provided by external agencies. Smoking remains a significant health problem in NZ and improving the quality of smoke-free education for pre-teen students, before most young people initiate smoking, would be a positive step towards better health.
"Young people, money, and access to tobacco." Wong, G., Glover, M. et al. (2007). New Zealand Medical Journal 120(1267 ). http://www.nzma.org.nz/journal/120-1267/2864/
This study investigated how Māori, Pacific Island, European, and Asian school students access cigarettes. Students aged 11–15 years, recruited through schools, participated in 12 focus groups run by ethnically matched senior student facilitators and researchers. Students bought cigarettes easily from tobacco retailers and cheaply from friends and social suppliers. Students used pocket money, wages, “scabbed”, and borrowed money from friends. They obtained cigarettes from family or other adults who must be discouraged from supplying cigarettes to children and be aware of the way children use small amounts of money and advised to monitor, educate, and discourage cigarette purchase.
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